Motivation and Attitude of Iranian Student Pilots towards Computer Assisted Language Learning ( CALL )

Today technology, especially computers, has revolutionized many aspects of our lives and computers play crucial roles in the process of language learning and teaching. Moreover, English is a vital and survival mean in aviation to teach related materials to pilots and those who are engaged in aviation. This study explored the attitude and motivation of Iranian student pilots toward computerassisted language learning. To this end, 30 Iranian intermediate student pilots who were studying at Islamic Republic of Iran Army Aviation College in Isfahan participated in this study. The data were collected through the Oxford Placement Test, a questionnaire on attitude towards computer-assisted language learning and another questionnaire on motivation for language learning through computer. Then, data analysis was carried out via calculating the frequency and percentage of the responses to the questions as well as the statements of the questionnaires. The results obtained revealed that Iranian student pilots showed positive attitude towards computer-assisted language learning and they were motivated for learning English through the use of computers since through such learning, anxiety is reduced and they can learn English in an independent learning atmosphere. The results suggested that computer-assisted language learning curriculum can IJEFL: International Journal of EFL Vol 2, No. 1, 2017 e-issn 2528-1712; p-issn 2528-1739 www.ijefl.com Motivation and Attitude of Iranian Student Pilots towards CALL IJEFL: International Journal of EFL, 2(1), 2017 34 significantly motivate students and thus it should be improved in aviation educational settings.

significantly motivate students and thus it should be improved in aviation educational settings.

Introduction
Celce-Murcia (2001) claimed that traditionally the use of computers in classrooms were not as frequent as now.The use of computer software programs as supportive materials in classrooms provides new opportunities for applying an audio-visual approach, cognitive approach, and communicative approach.While applying an audio-visual approach, pronunciation is stressed, lessons with dialogues are utilized, and mimicry and memorization are used.In a cognitive approach the instruction is often individualized, so students are responsible for their own learning.While using a communicative approach, the goal of language teaching is learner's ability to communicate in the target language.These approaches integrated in software programs support new learning skills more effectively than classical methods for language learning.
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is fast gaining recognition in the learning and teaching of a foreign language.Educational institutions have begun to spend great effort in trying to install computer facilities for classroom usage in order to enhance language learning.Hence, there has been a significant amount of research that explores the role of computers in the learning and teaching process (Kenning & Kenning, 1983;Dhaif, 1989;Schofield, 1995;Hubbard, 1996;Pennington, 1996;Levy, 1997;Galavis, 1998;Chapelle, 2001;Muir-Herzig, 2003).Khan (2005) stated that in the area of using CALL programs in education, the new educational models have shifted from teacher-centered to learner-centered classrooms by way of well-designed and flexible environments, and CALL can create this independent learning environment for foreign language learners where students can acquire and practice a new language (Butler-Pasce & Ellen, 1997).According to Crystal (1997), using multimedia technology in teaching English as a foreign language can help the learners increase their independence and solve some of the difficulties experienced in a traditional classroom.In other words, the computer provides an opportunity for learners being less dependent and gives them more freedom to experience learning on their own in a natural or semi-natural settings (Oliva & Pollastrini, 1995).Therefore, CALL provides highly interactive and communicative support for learning and teaching English skills.

CALL and Aviation
Regarding aviation and the use of computers in it, Rudisill (1995) hold that there has been a significant impact brought about by the progressive introduction of automation technologies onto commercial transport flight decks.The majority of these enhancements have been positive.For example, automation has allowed more efficient flight path management, a reduction in crew workload resulting in certification of the two-pilot cockpit, new crew interface features, and more efficient use of cockpit "real estate".However, human factors problems with evermore complex flight deck automation have also been noted.Wiener and Curry (1980) foreshadowed these problems, while researchers such as Wiener (1989), Sarter andWoods (1991), andNorman andOrlady (1989) added to our knowledge.The pilot/automation interface has been implicated in accidents involving "glass cockpit" aircraft (e.g., Sparaco, 1994;Mecham, 1994), prompting guidelines for "human-centered aircraft automation" (Billings, 1991).Blatner (2003) maintained that with the advent of modern technology, the use of computers becomes inevitable in the completion and performance of a particular task.Since the evolution of this major global trend, automation has widely enveloped the aviation field.Industry-wide, it has become a by-name and is considered an indispensable or integral addition to this highly complex, dynamic, and competitive business with the objective of improving and controlling flight management efficiency.Nowadays, we can see a widespread use and increasing level of automation in aviation particularly in flight and air traffic control operations.However, it has also given rise to issues and concerns pertaining to human intervention, accidents and incidents; and issues on human factors, specifically complacency (Doolittle, 2005).

CALL and Attitude
Researchers have been challenged to define attitude, validate the construct of attitude, and estimate the contributions that motivation and attitudes make to achievement in language learning.For instance, Wenden (1998) defines attitudes "learned motivations, valued beliefs, evaluations, what one believes is acceptable, or responses oriented towards approaching or avoiding."In a sense, attitudes are a form of "metacognitive knowledge" (p.52).Candy (1991) argues, "The overall approach a learner adopts will significantly influence the shape of his or her learning outcomes" (p.295-296).Hunter, et al. (1990) conducted research on the attitudes of students towards CALL in the enhancement of writing skills.They found that the students had positive attitudes towards using computers and they claimed that computers could improve the quality of their writing.King (1995) investigated seventh-grade students' attitudes towards computers and school in Australia.King found that computers enhanced students' attitudes towards learning.
According to Lasagabaster and Sierra (2003), when evaluating CALL programs, the learners' attitudes should be considered.They conducted a research study concerning students' attitudes towards CALL.The finding drawn is that the students considered CALL programs as complementary tools in language learning.They found that CALL programs created a less stressful environment for students, and learners had a positive attitude toward CALL.Brown, Fuller, and Vician (2004), Akbulut (2008), and Bebetsos and Antoniou (2009) investigated the relationship between learners' positive attitudes towards CALL and achievement in language learning.They indicated that there is a strong attitude towards using computers for language learning.
Although several studies showed positive attitudes towards CALL in language learning, some studies revealed the reverse results.For example, Min (1998) conducted a research to examine the attitudes of 603 Korean adult students toward computers in English as a foreign language classroom.The results showed that Korean language learners did not have a positive attitude toward CALL.Their lack of previous learning experience with computers was one of the reasons for these findings.Moreover, Ardebili and Jalali (2013) explored the attitude of Iranian EFL learners in language institutes towards the implementation of CALL.The results of the descriptive statistics indicated that the participants held neutral attitudes towards the application of CALL.The findings suggest that Iranian EFL learners in language institutes may not have enough exposure to CALL and sufficient knowledge on how to use it.
In language learning, both teacher's and learners' attitude is of importance.Concerning learners' attitude towards the significance of CALL, Liaw, Huang, and Chen (2007) indicated that if individuals' attitudes towards computer-based learning become more positive, they will use it more enthusiastically.Brown, Fuller, and Vician (2004) also found a positive relationship between positive attitudes towards computers and learners' success in both the subject matter being learned and the use of communication technologies.However, Conti-Ramsden, Durkin, and Walker (2010) reported that a negative attitude may cause computer resistance among both experienced and inexperienced users.Gardner (1985) described motivation as "complex of factors" including the desire to achieve a goal, effort expended on that direction, and reinforcement or satisfaction associated with the act of learning.According to him, a highly motivated individual will want to learn the language, enjoy learning the language, and strive to learn the language.Gardner (1985) also identifies motivation as the single and most influential factor in learning a new language.He believed that a motivated learner is one who is eager to learn the language, willing to expend effort on the learning activity, and willing to sustain the learning activity.In this respect, motivation has been emphasized to play a significant and direct role in the informal learning context, showing the voluntary nature of the motivated learners' participation in informal language learning contexts.

CALL and Motivation
In a study conducted by Ayres (2002), it was indicated that learners appreciate and value the learning that they do using computers, resulting in high face validity for CALL.Students who see CALL as an important part of the course also have a high level of motivation, and perceive CALL work as relevant to their needs.In addition, motivation, the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002), is one of the keys that influence the rate and success of language learning (Dörnyei, 1998).
CALL can reduce learner anxiety by providing a non-judgmental, independent learning environment (Kongrith & Maddux, 2005).Dat and Spanghero-Gaillard (2005) reported on research on the integration of CALL into foreign language education in a vocational high school.They found that this form of teaching has a positive effect on student motivation, particularly as anonymity is preserved, students feel less pressured and they enjoy the learning experience.2001) evaluated the use of CALL for teaching French and English in a Montreal secondary school.They found that during the first three years, students who received a CALL and project-based language course expressed higher motivation and attitudes towards learning both languages than students of other classes who were either taught via projects only; or ICT tools only or had none of these.Also, Nachoua (2012) conducted a study on the use of CALL as an effective method to enhance first-year Algerian university students' motivation thus improving their listening comprehension.The results of the study revealed that computer proficiency has a great influence on students' motivation, the fact that affects their performance in listening.

Hamers et al. (
Ghalami Nobar and Ahangari (2012) studied the effect of computer assisted language learning (CALL) on improving Iranian EFL learners' task-based listening as a motivating device to enhance formation of positive attitudes.They found a meaningful increase in the Iranian EFL learners' motivation.They concluded that the participants might have been highly motivated because of the use of computer and internet and it can be related to the attractiveness of technological devices to language learners in developing countries.
Through the wide-spread influence of technology on education, issues related to different aspects of computers and human interface have also gained attention over the past decades (Baloglu & Cevik, 2009).There is an increasing interest in discovering the relationship between language ability and computer use for educational purposes.Therefore, it is believed that a great deal of attention should be devoted to psychological impacts such as attitude, opinion, motivation, etc.According to Morris et al. (2009), both students' positive and negative reactions are reflected in attitude and motivation which can be considered as strong predictors of behavioral intentions (Azjen, 2001;Armitage & Conner, 2001;Fazio & Petty, 2008).
Concerning what went above, there was a gap within literature as there was no study done on student pilots' attitude and motivation toward CALL.Hence, this study tried to fill the gap.Due to the importance of aviation and the application of English in it, this study was an attempt to explore their motivation and attitude toward CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning).This study aimed at exploring: 1) what the attitude of Iranian student pilots is towards CALL; and 2) whether Iranian student pilots have motivation for CALL.

Participants
For the purpose of this study, 60 Iranian male pilot students took the Oxford Placement Test and based on the results of this test, 30 of them were selected as the intermediate EFL learners.Those who got between 50% and 80% of the whole score were chosen as the intermediate EFL learners.According to Perry (2005), those students scoring over 80% correct might be considered high ability (advanced), those between 50% and 80% average ability (intermediate), and those below 50% below average (beginner).
All the participants' major was aviation and graduated from Imam Ali University, Tehran, Iran.They had BA in Helicopter Piloting Program.As English is very crucial in aviation, after graduation, the student pilots were prepared to learn English for 13 months and the Interchange Series (4 th edition) were used as the main textbook for them.Their age range was between 19 and 22 and their mother tongue was Farsi.As gender was controlled, all the students who participated in the current study were male.

Instruments
Three instruments were used in this study: the Oxford Placement Test, a questionnaire of attitude towards CALL, and a questionnaire of motivation for CALL.

Oxford Placement Test (OPT)
The Oxford Placement Test (OPT) which was designed by Allan (2004) was a placement test and included 50 multiple-choice question items.The reliability and validity of the test were verified by the author of the test.This test was used to determine the level of English language proficiency of the learners.

Questionnaire of Students' Attitude toward CALL
The questionnaire which was used in the current study for determining students' attitude toward CALL was developed by the researchers.It was composed of Likert-scale items since this type of items is a useful and effective means of gathering data about people's attitudes and opinions (O' Maley & Chamot, 1990).In developing the questions for the questionnaires, the existing literature about students' attitudes towards computers was exploited (Pekel, 1997;Tuzcuoğlu, 2000;Arkın, 2003).After the questionnaire was developed, it was piloted on 20 student pilots similar to the participants of the study.Its reliability was calculated and it was 0.76.The questionnaire was validated by three experts in the field.
The questionnaire was composed of two sections.The first part dealt with the background information of the participants (name, age, and level of proficiency of the students).The second section consisted of two main questions: 1) How often do you use computers?and 2) What do you use computers for?The answers for the first question were once a week, 1-2 times a week, 3-4 times a week, and 5 or more times.The answers to the second question were: electronic mail, games, online shopping, ding assignments, surfing on the internet, chatrooms, entertainment, and web page designing.This section investigated the students' opinions about the application of CALL programs in a computer laboratory at the Islamic Republic of Iran Army Aviation Language Academy, Isfahan, Iran.A four-point Likert-scale ('Strongly Agree', 'Agree', 'Disagree' and 'Strongly Disagree') was used.

Questionnaire of Students' Motivation for CALL
A modified version of the questionnaire developed by Pu (2009) was used to explore Iranian student pilots' motivation for using CALL.A pilot study was run on it and the reliability coefficient of the scale, which was calculated to be 0.80, indicated a high level of reliability.Moreover it was validated by three experts in the field.The questionnaire consisted of 9 multiple-choice items that were assessed on a scale ranging from one to five (never=1, rarely=2, sometimes=3, often=4).

Data Collection Procedures
First of all the OPT was administered on April 6 2016.Those scoring between 50% and 80% were considered as intermediate students (Perry, 2005).The questionnaires of students' attitude towards and motivation for using CALL were distributed on April 11 & 12 2016 among the participants of the study.To increase the validity and reliability of the work, the participants were informed that their responses would be kept confidential and they would not endanger their status at work.Furthermore, the questionnaires were used just for improving the system of English education in the aviation of Iran.The results in the form of frequency and percentage are presented in the next section.

Results
The frequency and percentage of the answers given to these the questions of these two questionnaires were tabulated below.Tables 1 and 2 show the frequency and percentage of answers related to the two questions of the questionnaire on attitude towards using CALL.As shown in Table 2, web page designing was the least preferred (81.7% for never); while doing assignments was the most preferred (37.9% for often) use of computers rated by intermediate student pilots at the Islamic Republic of Iran Army Aviation Language Academy, Isfahan, Iran.The results showed that the participants had positive attitude towards using computers in English learning.Table 3 indicates the motivation of Iranian student pilots for using CALL in language learning.Note: SD: strongly disagree, D: disagree, A: agree, SA: strongly agree S1: I think CALL motivates me someday get a good job.S2: I think CALL will help me to better understand English-speaking people.S3: Proficiency in English is a sign of good education and it can be obtained by CALL better.S4: CALL is a motivating part of the school curriculum.S5: I study English by computer to go to get a good social status.S6: I like computer assisted English learning.S7: I like to put English posts on my online social pages for others to motivate them learning English.S8: I like to learn English idioms from native videos.
As indicated in Table 3, statements 3 and 6 were the most preferable ones as the statement 3 had 75.7 % of the participants agreed with it and about the statement 6, 57.7% of the participants agreed with it.Indeed, they believed that proficiency in English could be achieved through using computers and computer-assisted English learning could be a preferable issue.Altogether, they had motivation for using computer in their language learning in aviation.

Discussion and Conclusion
The results related to the first research question showed that 43.33 % of the intermediate students used computers more than 3-4 times a week and 30 % of them used computers 5 or more times a week and the rest of the students used computers only once or twice a week.Furthermore, using computer for doing assignments as well as sending and receiving emails were highly preferred by the participants of the study.The findings revealed that Iranian student pilots had highly positive attitude toward CALL.
In line with the results of this study, Hunter, Rilestone and Weisberg (1990) found that the students had positive attitudes towards using computers and they claimed that computers could improve the quality of their writing.In addition, King (1995) figured out that computers enhanced students' attitudes towards learning.Lasagabaster andSierra (2003), Brown, Fuller, andVician (2004), Akbulut (2008), and Bebetsos and Antoniou (2009) also showed a positive attitude towards CALL.While using computer in language learning, learners have a less stressful environment; therefore, they will have a positive attitude towards their learning and thus enjoy it.As a result of this positive learning atmosphere, the learners will general have the utmost success in learning.
There are some studies which showed the negative attitude of the learners towards using computer and CALL, as well.For example, Min (1998) showed that Korean language learners did not have a positive attitude toward CALL.Moreover, Ardebili and Jalali (2013) also came to the conclusion that Iranian EFL learners held neutral attitudes towards the application of CALL.The negative or neutral attitude towards CALL might be attributed to lack of experience with computers or not having enough exposure to CALL and thus insufficient knowledge on how to use it.Particularly in Iran, as the learners do not have enough facilities, they do not have sufficient access to computers at institutes or even in universities.The only courses which exploit computers are laboratory courses.All other courses are held in classes where no computer is used.However, most of the language learners presumably think positively of using computers in their learning.
Concerning learners' attitude towards the significance of CALL, Liaw, Huang, and Chen (2007) indicated that if individuals' attitudes towards computer-based learning become more positive, they will use it more enthusiastically; hence, they will have more success in language learning.Brown, Fuller, and Vician ( 2004) also found a positive relationship between positive attitudes towards computers and learners' success in both the subject matter being learned and the use of communication technologies.However, Conti-Ramsden, Durkin, and Walker (2010) reported that a negative attitude may cause computer resistance among both experienced and inexperienced users.
For the second research question, the results showed that Iranian student pilots were highly motivated toward CALL.Some of the related studies that have been conducted in the previous literature are discussed here to make a comparison between the results of the current research and the previous ones.The three issues mentioned in the questionnaire which revealed the preference of the participants were the significance of CALL in English comprehension, obtaining proficiency in English through CALL, and desirability of computer-assisted English learning.
Similar to the results of this study, Hamers et al. (2001) who evaluated the use of CALL for teaching French and English came to the conclusion that students who received a CALL and project-based language course expressed higher motivation and attitudes towards learning both languages than students of other classes.There was another study conducted by Ayres (2002) which indicated that learners appreciate and value the learning that they do using computers, resulting in high face validity for CALL.Khaloufi & Laabidi (2017) claim that teachers consider the use of computer is very essential in their teaching.Dat and Spanghero-Gaillard (2005) also found that integration of CALL into foreign language education has a positive effect on student motivation.Moreover, Nachoua's (2012) study revealed that computer proficiency has a great influence on students' motivation, the fact that affects their performance in listening.Ghalami Nobar and Ahangari (2012) noticed that computer assisted language learning (CALL) can be considered as a motivating device to enhance formation of positive attitudes among Iranian EFL learners to improve their task-based listening.
Language learners considering CALL essential to their learning usually have more motivation to learn.In addition, motivation is one of the key factors that has effects on the rate and success of language learning (Dörnyei, 1998).CALL is preferable to EFL learners since it can reduce learner anxiety as it provides a non-judgmental and independent learning environment (Kongrith & Maddux, 2005).Furthermore, in a teaching situation where CALL plays an important role students feel less pressured and they enjoy the learning experience because anonymity is preserved.Also, in developing countries, as technological devices re attractive, language learners have more motivation for CALL.
Online audio and visual multimedia resources can promote interest and motivation in foreign languages.For example, video clips (YouTube is an inexhaustible source of video clips) that combine text, image, and music are a teaching material that can stimulate students' emotional and cognitive areas in the process of learning (Berkec, 2012).Learning with video clips enables a different approach to the target language that is fun and spontaneous, because it provides the students with the ability and incentive to express his/her emotions, imagination, experience, and knowledge.
In student-centered classrooms, students are responsible for their own learning and for finding out their own learning styles and strategies, while the role of the teacher is to direct their students in the learning process.CALL may be seen as a part of student-centered approaches.Indeed, computers may have a significant role in this process since they give students the responsibility for studying and learning on their own.Some researchers maintained that one of the benefits of technology use is an increase in student motivation (Dunkel, 1991), as fun and games are being brought into the classroom (Lee 2000).This fun factor is a key benefit in a language classroom (Galavis 1998).
As Blatner (2003) also claimed, computers and automation are considered as an indispensable part in aviation which is a highly complex, dynamic, and competitive business whose objective is to improve and control flight management efficiency.Nowadays, we can see a widespread use and increasing level of automation in aviation particularly in flight and air traffic control operations.Interestingly, the findings of the study indicated that Iranian student pilots demonstrated positive attitudes and motivation for the use of computers in language learning.Therefore, the main conclusion that is drawn on the basis of the results of the study is that Iranian student pilots who study at the Islamic Republic of Iran Army Aviation perceive the priority of computers in their education and their future job as well.Further, they try to include computers in their learning as they see the importance of English in their job.English and computers are both of utmost importance in aviation and Iranian student pilots showed that they have motivation and positive attitude, to a high extent, towards CALL.Hence, it can be suggested to the head of the Islamic Republic of Iran Army Aviation to put more emphasis on the concepts of CALL so as to provide more facilities for computerized language laboratories.Thus, the student pilots may become more and more willing to change their way of language learning and it will help them a lot in performing their duties as pilots.

Table 1 :
Frequency and percentage of answers related to the question "How often do you use computers?"

Table 2 :
Frequency and percentage related to the question "What do you use computers for?" Notes: N: never, R: rarely, S: sometimes, O: often Q2a: electronic mail

Table 3 :
Frequency and percentage of items related to motivation for using CALL